{"id":4886,"date":"2018-05-28T13:36:50","date_gmt":"2018-05-28T11:36:50","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/moked.it\/international\/?p=4886"},"modified":"2018-09-04T16:47:51","modified_gmt":"2018-09-04T14:47:51","slug":"international-holocaust-remembrance-alliance-antisemitism-times-crisis","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/moked.it\/international\/2018\/05\/28\/international-holocaust-remembrance-alliance-antisemitism-times-crisis\/","title":{"rendered":"INTERNATIONAL HOLOCAUST REMEMBRANCE ALLIANCE \u201cAntisemitism in Times of Crisis\u201d"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"katz\"<\/a>The following is the lecture delivered by Professor Steven T. Katz on the occasion of the Conference \u2018The Racial Laws: Before and After the Shoah: Models, Practices and Heritage’.<\/p>\n

Antisemitism as we know it was given much of its decisive character and form as a result of a crisis within the Jewish community, a crisis that arose as a consequence of the conflict between Jews who accepted the messianic claims on behalf of Jesus and those who rejected these claims. Paul is the key figure here. In his radical anti-Judaic polemic, he insists that, \u201call who rely on works of the law are under a curse.\u201d (Gal. 3: 13-14). Judaism is considered to be, \u201ca dispensation of death, carved in letters of stone… a dispensation of condemnation\u201d (2 Cor. 3: 6-11). Judaism is dark, carnal, deadly, unredeemed and unredeeming. Even more significant, Jews are \u201ca rebellious and apostate people.\u201d (Rom. 10:21).
\nThese ideas were further developed in the Gospels, that were composed for and circulated among an increasingly gentile-Christian audience. In Mark, the Jews cry: \u201cCrucify him.\u201d (Mark 15-12-15). In Matthew, we read: \u201cO Jerusalem, Jerusalem, killing the prophets and stoning those who are sent to you.\u201d (Matthew 23: 27-39). And by the time of the Gospel of John in the second century, we read that the Jews \u201care of your Father, the devil.\u201d (John 8: 43). It is no coincidence that in John\u2019s recounting of the crucifixion there is an excessive emphasis on the guilt of the Jews who, as the followers of Satan, killed Christ and thereby signaled their primordial otherness. As John now says: \u201cthe Jews do not belong to God.\u201d (John 8: 47). Thus, by the second century, the normative, canonical literature of Christianity had come to picture Judaism as a spiritual cadaver and the Jewish people as an apostate, deicidal mob, loyal to Satan. And very importantly, after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E. this initial collision was inherited and expanded by an increasingly non-Jewish Church.
\nAs the Jews and gentile Christians continued their polemical interaction, the Church Fathers, in the Patristic literature, developed the classical anti-Jewish thesis of \u201csupersessionism\u201d \u2013 i.e. that Christianity had superceded Judaism \u2013 and expanded the metaphysical claim that the clash between Jews and Christians was the embodiment in time and space of the Devil\u2019s clash with Jesus. That is, the Jews were more than merely human opponents of God. So the clash between the two religions became deeply mythical and transcendental in nature. John Chrysostom, one of the more virulent anti-Jewish fathers, declared in his Eight Orations Against the Jews: \u201cThe Jews fight against the commands of God and dance with the Devil . . . the demons inhabit the very souls of the Jews\u201d (4.7); and again, in Homily 1, he wrote: \u201cDemons dwell in the synagogue not only in the place itself but in the souls of the Jews . . . .who are [a] common disgrace and infection of the whole world.\u201d (Homily I).
\n \tThus, the conflict between the synagogue and the Church should be seen as a conflict that belongs to myth and metaphysics, not to simple history.
\n\tAfter the combined hermeneutical assault of the New Testament and the patristic writing, the Jew will never again be, in Christian societies, \u201ca man like other men.\u201d He has become a mythic creature.
\nMany factors will contribute to the continuing evolution of anti-Judaism and antisemitism, but none will be more significant than this metaphysicalizing of Jewish being. This remains essential and constant even in modern circumstances and, above all, is central to the transcendentaling of the Jews in Nazi ideology. For Nazism, as for the Church, \u201cthe Jews\u201d represent a trans-historical contrariety, an otherness that cannot be changed, and a fundamental enemy of both God and man. In the words of Gregory of Nyssa
\n\u201cThe Jews are slayers of the Lord, murderers of the prophets, adversaries of God, men who show contempt for the law, foes of grace, enemies for their father\u2019s faith, advocates of the Devil brood of vipers, slanderers, scoffers, men whose minds are darkness, leaven of the Pharisees, assembly of demons, sinners, wicked men, stoners and haters of righteousness.\u201d
\n This claim was later recycled by Nazism. As Hitler pronounced:
\nTwo worlds face one another \u2013 the men of God and the men of Satan. The Jew is the anti-man, the creature of another god. He must come from another root of the human race. I set the Aryan and the Jews against each other and if I call one of them a human being, I must call the other something else. The two worlds are as separate as man and beast. (Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, p. 718.<\/p>\n

By the medieval period anti-Judaism was not merely a form of prejudice but had become a religious deed, an act of faith, central to, and emerging from, the most intimate religio-cultural sensibilities of medieval Christian society. It was a ritual that gave immediacy to the arcane beliefs of theology, especially for the unlearned masses. Translated into widespread popular beliefs, Jews were seen as literally non-human, pictured with tails and horns, and often with odd feet, and there was the claim that Jewish men menstruate and that Jewish women had a peculiar odor, \u201cthe fetor Judaicus\u201d that only baptism could eliminate. Wearing a \u201cJew\u2019s hat\u201d and special clothing, the Jew was everything that Christians and Muslims were not. As Pope Gregory the Great commented: the Jews are \u201cPreachers of [the] Antichrist.\u201d Thus Jews were imaged as traitors, murderers, usurers, and thieves. In describing them, medieval authors refer to them as \u201cserpents, spiders, . . . basilisks, goats, pigs, ravens, vultures, scorpions, dogs, cormorants, hyaenas, jackals, [and] vermin.\u201d (Moshe Lazar, \u201cThe Lamb and the Scapegoat,\u201d p. 55). In effect, Jews are thought of as non-human and so the living Jew is removed from the ordinary family of human beings. This inherent peculiarity also provided the basis for believing such ugly and nonsensical claims as the \u201cBlood Libel,\u201d the libel of \u201cthe desecration of the Host,\u201d and the belief in Jews as black magicians.
\nOver the centuries, this theological myth became the foundation for Jewish life in Christian Europe. And from the late 6th century C.E., with the rise of Islam, a second negative theological myth emerged in the form of Muslim anti-Jewish accounts. The Muslim assault was, to some degree, less extreme because it lacked anything comparable to the Easter story, but canonical Islamic sources still presented Jews as the enemies of Muhammad and Islam, and, secondarily, as enemies of Allah. So, the Quran teaches that Jews are the \u201cheirs\u201d of pigs and monkeys (Sura 5) and this becomes the basis for a society in which Jews are defined as 2nd or 3rd class members of society, known as dhimmis.
\nOnce Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire with the conversion of Constantine in 312 C.E., and then the Muslin conquest brought much of the Mediterranean world and all of the Middle East under Muslim control \u2014 which is where the majority of Jews lived until the post-Crusades era \u2013 these anti-Jewish theological tropes became culturally normative and influenced all cultural, political and economic activities in which Jews were engaged. Accordingly, Jews in Christian society were excluded from the guilds and universities, denied the right to own land, and then forced by circumstances to become usurers. And, when they were owed too much money, they were exiled, as occurred in England in 1290, in France in 1306, and for political, not economic reasons, from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1496.
\nIn Muslim communities and states Jews were classed, by definition, as \u201cothers\u201d who, though they could not be forced to convert to Islam, were required to wear special \u201choney\u201d colored clothes, pay additional special taxes like the jizya, and were not allowed to ride horses or build large synagogues. In these ways both Christian and Muslim societies regularized Judeophobia and anti-Jewish laws and habits. That is to say, when the times called for it, when an \u201cenemy\u201d was needed, a \u201cdiabolical\u201d agent required, \u201cthe Jew\u201d was the \u201cnatural\u201d target to turn to, or rather, against.
\n \tThe negative myths even existed in Christian societies where there were no Jews, like 16th century England, where they helped to produce both Marlowe\u2019s The Jew of Malta and Shakespeare\u2019s The Merchant of Venice. This shows that once antisemitism was fixed as a central feature of Christian and Muslim societies, it existed in all times and not just in times of crisis. As such it was endemic, constant, and decisively defining. Very importantly, it was not the exclusive property of the political right or the political left. Both ideological camps used it with enthusiasm.
\nIt is, therefore, within this larger context that we have to situate and explain the appearance and the relevance of anti-Semitism in times of crisis. When political and economic conditions are stable, the countervailing forces of other communal and state interests subordinate and control the radical exploitation of anti-Jewish political, economic, and social beliefs. But when communal (and individual) life becomes unstable, the necessity to \u201cexplain,\u201d and the need for scapegoats arises and the circumstance of \u201cthe Jew\u201d as the pre-eminent \u201cother\u201d becomes influential in both Christian and Muslim culture. \u201cThe Jew\u201d is now referred to as the cause of the existential socio-political malaise and economic distress.
\nFor example, Jews were blamed for the \u201cBlack Death\u201d of 1348; the spread of syphilis in the 16th century (and today AIDS); the breakdown of medieval Christendom and the witch-craze of the 16th and 17th centuries. They were blamed by the Catholic Church for causing the Reformation, (which led to the formation of the first official ghettos\u2014the first being established in Venice). They were considered responsible for the evils opposed by Chmielnicki in the Ukraine in 1648; for the assassination of Czar Aleksander II and for Russia\u2019s economic difficulties which led to the pogroms of the 1880s; for the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (that ultimately led to the Dreyfuss Affair in 1893); and for the Dolchstoss accusation (that Germany was betrayed by socialists and Jews at home) that became so consequential in Germany after the loss of World War I. Then, too, the tension created by the rise of both an expansionist Stalinist Russia and Hitler\u2019s Third Reich increased the intense anti-Judaism in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.
\nMore recently, the increased manifestation of anti-Semitism in the former East Germany and post-Holocaust Poland, as well as the sharp spike in anti-Semitism in the United States in the 1920s and 1930s, were caused by economic crises and political instability. And today, blaming \u201cthe Jew\u201d is again the case in many right-wing circles in Europe that fear the dissolution of what remains of Christian Europe; and in sections of the American extreme right that fear the changing ethnic-racial make up of the United States. This accusation is also given prominence in anti-Jewish and anti-Western circles in dysfunctional Muslim cultures, both in the Middle East and in Europe.
\nAs modern Europe showed after the Enlightenment, during the era of Jewish Emancipation between the French revolution and 1880, it could not abide the Jew as equal and as citizen. A Jew who looked like everyone else, a Jew who smelled like everyone else, and a Jew who spoke and acted as everyone else, was still unacceptable to many. And so, we see the emergence of movements like: Romanticism in Western Europe; Slavophilism, in Russia; Nationalism in France; and Aryanism in Germany; — movements through which disoriented and desperate intellectuals joined with large segments of the general community to create \u201cnew reasons for what it believed on instinct.\u201d (That is, they created theories (a) based on notions of organic unity that the state is like a natural family, and (b) so-called \u201cscientific\u201d racial anti-Semitism.\u201d) And these rabid, false conceptions and arguments came, not too many decades later, to justify Auschwitz, with the approval of much of Europe\u2019s then dominant political class. <\/p>\n

II
\n Italy and its racist laws
\nThis complex history created the conditions out of which Mussolini\u2019s fascism and Hitler\u2019s National Socialist dystopia emerged. The defeat in war, the anomie created by modernity, the collapse of old, defining, boundaries, the ending of several major empires, the Russian revolution, and the considerable uncertainty that marked personal and national life, encouraged radical, totalistic, political ideologies. In the view of both Hitler and Mussolini, Western society was dissolving, and in so doing was undermining all the crucial inherited virtues and ideals. And, given the historical legacy described above, now inherited by 20th century Europeans, it had to be \u201cthe Jews\u201d who were destroying modern Europe for their own selfish reasons. This theory, that was explained so neatly in the Czarist-sponsored 1903 Protocols of the Elders of Zion, was central to both Nazi and Fascist antisemitism. Just as Jews had earlier been in league with the Antichrist to destroy medieval Christian civilization, that defined itself as \u201cthe body of Christ,\u201d Jews were again seen as the catalytic agents and promoters of unwelcome change. Jews were seen as the fermenters and supporters of socialism, anarchy, and revolution. For Slavophile or Panslavist intellectuals, Jews were considered a dangerous, always foreign, group and the enemy of an authentic Russian state. For romantics and nationalists, Jews were aliens who, by their nature, could not be assimilated. For racial theorists, Jews were beings of a different and inferior form. And for Hitler, Jews were untermenschen, diseased, very dangerous, and lesser beings.
\nIn 1930s Italy, the radical political and ideological context created by Il Duce made room for, and even encouraged and came to believe in, the need for anti-Jewish racial laws. I do not doubt that Italians were considerably less antisemitic than Germans, Frenchmen, Austrians and Eastern European populations, as Renzo de Felice has argued in his many publications. But I am also convinced that Italy was not immune to anti-Semitism, nor was anti-Jewish legislation and the other actions undertaken by Mussolini solely the consequence of his alliance with Hitler. The Catholic Church, which was still a major cultural influence in Italy, was exceedingly hostile to Jews and Jewish emancipation. As a central pillar of the old establishment, it genuinely feared the changes brought by modernity: industrialization, urbanization, democratization, secularism, and socialism. And it blamed all of these \u201cevils\u201d on the Jews who appeared to be the beneficiary of these new ideas and the changes they brought. Both La Cultura Cattolica and L\u2019Osservatore Romano constantly used The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in their anti-Jewish crusade. Even the \u201cblood libel\u201d was recycled in their pages after the Mendel Beilis trial in Kiev in 1913.
\nMussolini came to power in 1919, intending to break the power of the trade unions and to control the emerging influence of the socialist parties in the immediate, polarized circumstances that followed the end of World War I. In 1919, reflecting the influence of antisemitic accusations, and very likely the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (that were soon to be published in Italy in 1921 and again in 1937), Mussolini wrote of \u201cbig Jewish bankers in London and New York [whose] Bolshevism [was] the revenge of Judaism over Christianity.\u201d For Mussolini, who certainly vacillated in the 1920s and mid-1930s on the issue of antisemitism, Jews were suspect, despite the general Jewish support of Fascism. They were suspected of being anti-fascist, of being socialist (or communist), of exploiting the international political system, and, until the mid-1930s, with a great deal of inconsistency, of being \u201cforeigners\u201d and \u201caliens\u201d in the Italian community and state. The rise of Hitler, the Depression, Mussolini\u2019s alliance with the F\u00fchrer, the passage of the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, Italy\u2019s colonial policy, and the threat of war, all created an atmosphere of crisis in Italian political circles. The need to explain why there was a crisis at all, and the need for \u201creasons\u201d for the crisis, galvanized the antisemitic elements in Mussolini\u2019s outlook and politics, leading ultimately to the 1938 racist laws.
\nThese laws should not be seen only as a form of appeasement to the Third Reich. As a reviewer of Paolo Orano\u2019s highly influential 1937 Gli ebrei in Italia openly demanded in the pages of the newspaper If Popolo d\u2019Italia: the Jews of Italy had \u201ceither to declare themselves unequivocally enemies (let it be repeated enemies) of international Judaism \u2013 masonic, subversive, and especially anti-Fascist . . . . or they should renounce Italian citizenship and residence.\u201d (Michalle Sarfatti, Jews in Mussolini\u2019s Italy, p. 113). This was an increasingly influential sentiment that Mussolini and his government now accepted.
\nIn consequence, the government initiated a series of anti-Jewish laws as a means of \u201cself-defense\u201d against what it saw not only as an ideological opponent but also as a \u201cracial enemy. Italians were, from this point forward, to be defined as \u201cNordic\u201d or \u201cAryans\u201d and Jews as \u201cSemites.\u201d As such, \u201cJewish\u201d interests did not coincide with those of \u201creal\u201d Italians and the Italian state. Instead, Jews were said to be exploiting the present unstable political conditions for their own interest.
\nAccordingly, in February 1938, Mussolini requested that all high ranking Jewish officers in the armed services be identified; the Minister of Education asked that all Jewish students in Italian universities be identified as Jewish students; the director of the Ministry of the Interior told his subordinates to create a list of state workers who were \u201cof the Israelite religion.\u201d In addition, an office for the \u201cstudy of race and the dissemination of racial propaganda in the Ministry of Popular Culture\u201d (Sarfatti, p. 123) was also created in February, and in November 1938 all Jews, no matter how loyal or enthusiastic they had heretofore been, were expelled from the Fascist Party. In August of this same year, the Ufficio Studi de Problema della Rozza was created in the Ministry of Popular Culture which led to the issuance of further anti-Jewish racial legislation. Italians would now be protected from Jewish chicanery, avarice and political duplicity. What was self-identified as \u201cFascist racism\u201d would ensure that the devolving social and political spiral was halted and that Italy would be made safer and appropriately unified<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

The following is the lecture delivered by Professor Steven T. Katz on the occasion of the Conference \u2018The Racial Laws: Before and After the Shoah: Models, Practices and Heritage’. Antisemitism as we know it was given much of its decisive character and form as a result of a crisis within the Jewish community, a crisis… leggi <\/i><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4296,"featured_media":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[7607],"tags":[],"position":[],"class_list":["post-4886","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-events"],"yoast_head":"\nINTERNATIONAL HOLOCAUST REMEMBRANCE ALLIANCE \u201cAntisemitism in Times of Crisis\u201d - Pagine Ebraiche International<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/moked.it\/international\/2018\/05\/28\/international-holocaust-remembrance-alliance-antisemitism-times-crisis\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"INTERNATIONAL HOLOCAUST REMEMBRANCE ALLIANCE \u201cAntisemitism in Times of Crisis\u201d - Pagine Ebraiche International\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"The following is the lecture delivered by Professor Steven T. 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Katz on the occasion of the Conference \u2018The Racial Laws: Before and After the Shoah: Models, Practices and Heritage’. 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